Models#

This is an introduction and overview on how to work with models in Gammapy.

The sub-package modeling contains all the functionality related to modeling and fitting data. This includes spectral, spatial and temporal model classes, as well as the fit and parameter API.The models follow a naming scheme which contains the category as a suffix to the class name. An overview of all the available models can be found in the model gallery.

Note that there are separate tutorials, Modelling and Fitting that explains about modeling, the Gammapy modeling and fitting framework. You have to read that to learn how to work with models in order to analyse data.

Setup#

# %matplotlib inline
import numpy as np
from astropy import units as u
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from IPython.display import display
from gammapy.maps import Map, MapAxis, WcsGeom

Check setup#

from gammapy.utils.check import check_tutorials_setup

check_tutorials_setup()
System:

        python_executable      : /home/runner/work/gammapy-docs/gammapy-docs/gammapy/.tox/build_docs/bin/python
        python_version         : 3.9.16
        machine                : x86_64
        system                 : Linux


Gammapy package:

        version                : 1.0.1
        path                   : /home/runner/work/gammapy-docs/gammapy-docs/gammapy/.tox/build_docs/lib/python3.9/site-packages/gammapy


Other packages:

        numpy                  : 1.24.2
        scipy                  : 1.10.1
        astropy                : 5.2.1
        regions                : 0.7
        click                  : 8.1.3
        yaml                   : 6.0
        IPython                : 8.11.0
        jupyterlab             : not installed
        matplotlib             : 3.7.1
        pandas                 : not installed
        healpy                 : 1.16.2
        iminuit                : 2.21.0
        sherpa                 : 4.15.0
        naima                  : 0.10.0
        emcee                  : 3.1.4
        corner                 : 2.2.1


Gammapy environment variables:

        GAMMAPY_DATA           : /home/runner/work/gammapy-docs/gammapy-docs/gammapy-datasets/1.0.1

Spectral models#

All models are imported from the models namespace. Let’s start with a PowerLawSpectralModel:

from gammapy.modeling.models import PowerLawSpectralModel

pwl = PowerLawSpectralModel()
print(pwl)
PowerLawSpectralModel

  type      name     value         unit      ... max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --- ------ ------- ----
spectral     index 2.0000e+00                ... nan  False   False
spectral amplitude 1.0000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ... nan  False    True
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ... nan   True   False

To get a list of all available spectral models you can import and print the spectral model registry or take a look at the spectral-models-gallery

from gammapy.modeling.models import SPECTRAL_MODEL_REGISTRY

print(SPECTRAL_MODEL_REGISTRY)
Registry
--------

ConstantSpectralModel                     : ['ConstantSpectralModel', 'const']
CompoundSpectralModel                     : ['CompoundSpectralModel', 'compound']
PowerLawSpectralModel                     : ['PowerLawSpectralModel', 'pl']
PowerLaw2SpectralModel                    : ['PowerLaw2SpectralModel', 'pl-2']
BrokenPowerLawSpectralModel               : ['BrokenPowerLawSpectralModel', 'bpl']
SmoothBrokenPowerLawSpectralModel         : ['SmoothBrokenPowerLawSpectralModel', 'sbpl']
PiecewiseNormSpectralModel                : ['PiecewiseNormSpectralModel', 'piecewise-norm']
ExpCutoffPowerLawSpectralModel            : ['ExpCutoffPowerLawSpectralModel', 'ecpl']
ExpCutoffPowerLaw3FGLSpectralModel        : ['ExpCutoffPowerLaw3FGLSpectralModel', 'ecpl-3fgl']
SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw3FGLSpectralModel   : ['SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw3FGLSpectralModel', 'secpl-3fgl']
SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw4FGLDR3SpectralModel: ['SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw4FGLDR3SpectralModel', 'secpl-4fgl-dr3']
SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw4FGLSpectralModel   : ['SuperExpCutoffPowerLaw4FGLSpectralModel', 'secpl-4fgl']
LogParabolaSpectralModel                  : ['LogParabolaSpectralModel', 'lp']
TemplateSpectralModel                     : ['TemplateSpectralModel', 'template']
TemplateNDSpectralModel                   : ['TemplateNDSpectralModel', 'templateND']
GaussianSpectralModel                     : ['GaussianSpectralModel', 'gauss']
EBLAbsorptionNormSpectralModel            : ['EBLAbsorptionNormSpectralModel', 'ebl-norm']
NaimaSpectralModel                        : ['NaimaSpectralModel', 'naima']
ScaleSpectralModel                        : ['ScaleSpectralModel', 'scale']
PowerLawNormSpectralModel                 : ['PowerLawNormSpectralModel', 'pl-norm']
LogParabolaNormSpectralModel              : ['LogParabolaNormSpectralModel', 'lp-norm']
ExpCutoffPowerLawNormSpectralModel        : ['ExpCutoffPowerLawNormSpectralModel', 'ecpl-norm']
DarkMatterAnnihilationSpectralModel       : ['DarkMatterAnnihilationSpectralModel', 'dm-annihilation']

Spectral models all come with default parameters. Different parameter values can be passed on creation of the model, either as a string defining the value and unit or as an astropy.units.Quantity object directly:

amplitude = 1e-12 * u.Unit("TeV-1 cm-2 s-1")
pwl = PowerLawSpectralModel(amplitude=amplitude, index=2.2)

For convenience a str specifying the value and unit can be passed as well:

pwl = PowerLawSpectralModel(amplitude="2.7e-12 TeV-1 cm-2 s-1", index=2.2)
print(pwl)
PowerLawSpectralModel

  type      name     value         unit      ... max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --- ------ ------- ----
spectral     index 2.2000e+00                ... nan  False   False
spectral amplitude 2.7000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ... nan  False    True
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ... nan   True   False

The model can be evaluated at given energies by calling the model instance:

energy = [1, 3, 10, 30] * u.TeV
dnde = pwl(energy)
print(dnde)
[2.70000000e-12 2.40822469e-13 1.70358483e-14 1.51948705e-15] 1 / (cm2 s TeV)

The returned quantity is a differential photon flux.

For spectral models you can additionally compute the integrated and energy flux in a given energy range:

flux = pwl.integral(energy_min=1 * u.TeV, energy_max=10 * u.TeV)
print(flux)

eflux = pwl.energy_flux(energy_min=1 * u.TeV, energy_max=10 * u.TeV)
print(eflux)
2.108034597491956e-12 1 / (cm2 s)
4.982075849517391e-12 TeV / (cm2 s)

This also works for a list or an array of integration boundaries:

energy = [1, 3, 10, 30] * u.TeV
flux = pwl.integral(energy_min=energy[:-1], energy_max=energy[1:])
print(flux)
[1.64794383e-12 4.60090769e-13 1.03978226e-13] 1 / (cm2 s)

In some cases it can be useful to find use the inverse of a spectral model, to find the energy at which a given flux is reached:

dnde = 2.7e-12 * u.Unit("TeV-1 cm-2 s-1")
energy = pwl.inverse(dnde)
print(energy)
1.0 TeV

As a convenience you can also plot any spectral model in a given energy range:

plt.figure()
pwl.plot(energy_bounds=[1, 100] * u.TeV)
models
<Axes: xlabel='Energy [TeV]', ylabel='dnde [1 / (cm2 s TeV)]'>

Norm Spectral Models#

Normed spectral models are a special class of Spectral Models, which have a dimension-less normalisation. These spectral models feature a norm parameter instead of amplitude and are named using the NormSpectralModel suffix. They must be used along with another spectral model, as a multiplicative correction factor according to their spectral shape. They can be typically used for adjusting template based models, or adding a EBL correction to some analytic model.

To check if a given SpectralModel is a norm model, you can simply look at the is_norm_spectral_model property

# To see the available norm models shipped with gammapy:
for model in SPECTRAL_MODEL_REGISTRY:
    if model.is_norm_spectral_model:
        print(model)
<class 'gammapy.modeling.models.spectral.PiecewiseNormSpectralModel'>
<class 'gammapy.modeling.models.spectral.EBLAbsorptionNormSpectralModel'>
<class 'gammapy.modeling.models.spectral.PowerLawNormSpectralModel'>
<class 'gammapy.modeling.models.spectral.LogParabolaNormSpectralModel'>
<class 'gammapy.modeling.models.spectral.ExpCutoffPowerLawNormSpectralModel'>

As an example, we see the PowerLawNormSpectralModel

from gammapy.modeling.models import PowerLawNormSpectralModel

pwl_norm = PowerLawNormSpectralModel(tilt=0.1)
print(pwl_norm)
PowerLawNormSpectralModel

  type      name     value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
spectral      norm 1.0000e+00      0.000e+00 nan nan  False    True
spectral      tilt 1.0000e-01      0.000e+00 nan nan   True   False
spectral reference 1.0000e+00  TeV 0.000e+00 nan nan   True   False

We can check the correction introduced at each energy

energy = [0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30] * u.TeV
print(pwl_norm(energy))
[1.12794487 1.         0.89595846 0.79432823 0.7116851 ]

A typical use case of a norm model would be in applying spectral correction to a TemplateSpectralModel. A template model is defined by custom tabular values provided at initialization.

from gammapy.modeling.models import TemplateSpectralModel

plt.figure()
energy = [0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30] * u.TeV
values = [40, 30, 20, 10, 1] * u.Unit("TeV-1 s-1 cm-2")
template = TemplateSpectralModel(energy, values)
template.plot(energy_bounds=[0.2, 50] * u.TeV, label="template model")
normed_template = template * pwl_norm
normed_template.plot(energy_bounds=[0.2, 50] * u.TeV, label="normed_template model")
plt.legend()
models
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x7f3170fa3070>

Compound Spectral Model#

A CompoundSpectralModel is an arithmetic combination of two spectral models. The model normed_template created in the preceding example is an example of a CompoundSpectralModel

CompoundSpectralModel
    Component 1 : TemplateSpectralModel

  type   name   value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- ---- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
spectral norm 1.0000e+00      0.000e+00 nan nan   True    True
    Component 2 : PowerLawNormSpectralModel

  type      name     value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
spectral      norm 1.0000e+00      0.000e+00 nan nan  False    True
spectral      tilt 1.0000e-01      0.000e+00 nan nan   True   False
spectral reference 1.0000e+00  TeV 0.000e+00 nan nan   True   False
    Operator : mul

To create an additive model, you can do simply:

CompoundSpectralModel
    Component 1 : PowerLawSpectralModel

  type      name     value         unit      ... max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --- ------ ------- ----
spectral     index 2.2000e+00                ... nan  False   False
spectral amplitude 2.7000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ... nan  False    True
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ... nan   True   False
    Component 2 : TemplateSpectralModel

  type   name   value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- ---- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
spectral norm 1.0000e+00      0.000e+00 nan nan   True    True
    Operator : add

Spatial models#

Spatial models are imported from the same models namespace, let’s start with a GaussianSpatialModel:

from gammapy.modeling.models import GaussianSpatialModel

gauss = GaussianSpatialModel(lon_0="0 deg", lat_0="0 deg", sigma="0.2 deg")
print(gauss)
GaussianSpatialModel

  type   name   value    unit   error      min        max    frozen is_norm link
------- ----- ---------- ---- --------- ---------- --------- ------ ------- ----
spatial lon_0 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00        nan       nan  False   False
spatial lat_0 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00 -9.000e+01 9.000e+01  False   False
spatial sigma 2.0000e-01  deg 0.000e+00  0.000e+00       nan  False   False
spatial     e 0.0000e+00      0.000e+00  0.000e+00 1.000e+00   True   False
spatial   phi 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00        nan       nan   True   False

Again you can check the SPATIAL_MODELS registry to see which models are available or take a look at the spatial-models-gallery

from gammapy.modeling.models import SPATIAL_MODEL_REGISTRY

print(SPATIAL_MODEL_REGISTRY)
Registry
--------

ConstantSpatialModel           : ['ConstantSpatialModel', 'const']
TemplateSpatialModel           : ['TemplateSpatialModel', 'template']
DiskSpatialModel               : ['DiskSpatialModel', 'disk']
GaussianSpatialModel           : ['GaussianSpatialModel', 'gauss']
GeneralizedGaussianSpatialModel: ['GeneralizedGaussianSpatialModel', 'gauss-general']
PointSpatialModel              : ['PointSpatialModel', 'point']
ShellSpatialModel              : ['ShellSpatialModel', 'shell']
Shell2SpatialModel             : ['Shell2SpatialModel', 'shell2']

The default coordinate frame for all spatial models is "icrs", but the frame can be modified using the frame argument:

gauss = GaussianSpatialModel(
    lon_0="0 deg", lat_0="0 deg", sigma="0.2 deg", frame="galactic"
)

You can specify any valid astropy.coordinates frame. The center position of the model can be retrieved as a astropy.coordinates.SkyCoord object using SpatialModel.position:

<SkyCoord (Galactic): (l, b) in deg
    (0., 0.)>

Spatial models can be evaluated again by calling the instance:

lon = [0, 0.1] * u.deg
lat = [0, 0.1] * u.deg

flux_per_omega = gauss(lon, lat)
print(flux_per_omega)
[13061.88470863 10172.60603942] 1 / sr

The returned quantity corresponds to a surface brightness. Spatial model can be also evaluated using Map and Geom objects:

m = Map.create(skydir=(0, 0), width=(1, 1), binsz=0.02, frame="galactic")
m.quantity = gauss.evaluate_geom(m.geom)
plt.figure()
m.plot(add_cbar=True)
models
<WCSAxes: >

Again for convenience the model can be plotted directly:

plt.figure()
gauss.plot(add_cbar=True)
models
<WCSAxes: >

All spatial models have an associated sky region to it e.g. to illustrate the extend of the model on a sky image. The returned object is an SkyRegion object:

print(gauss.to_region())
Region: EllipseSkyRegion
center: <SkyCoord (Galactic): (l, b) in deg
    (0., 0.)>
width: 0.6000000000000001 deg
height: 0.6000000000000001 deg
angle: 0.0 deg

Now we can plot the region on an sky image:

# create and plot the model
plt.figure()
gauss_elongated = GaussianSpatialModel(
    lon_0="0 deg", lat_0="0 deg", sigma="0.2 deg", e=0.7, phi="45 deg"
)
ax = gauss_elongated.plot(add_cbar=True)

# add region illustration
region = gauss_elongated.to_region()
region_pix = region.to_pixel(ax.wcs)
ax.add_artist(region_pix.as_artist(ec="w", fc="None"))
models
<matplotlib.patches.Ellipse object at 0x7f316e50a400>

The to_region() method can also be useful to write e.g. ds9 region files using write_ds9 from the regions package:

from regions import Regions

regions = Regions([gauss.to_region(), gauss_elongated.to_region()])

filename = "regions.reg"
regions.write(
    filename,
    format="ds9",
    overwrite=True,
)

# !cat regions.reg

Temporal models#

Temporal models are imported from the same models namespace, let’s start with a GaussianTemporalModel:

from gammapy.modeling.models import GaussianTemporalModel

gauss_temp = GaussianTemporalModel(t_ref=59240.0 * u.d, sigma=2.0 * u.d)
print(gauss_temp)
GaussianTemporalModel

  type    name   value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- ----- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
temporal t_ref 5.9240e+04    d 0.000e+00 nan nan  False   False
temporal sigma 2.0000e+00    d 0.000e+00 nan nan  False   False

To check the TEMPORAL_MODELS registry to see which models are available:

from gammapy.modeling.models import TEMPORAL_MODEL_REGISTRY

print(TEMPORAL_MODEL_REGISTRY)
Registry
--------

ConstantTemporalModel           : ['ConstantTemporalModel', 'const']
LinearTemporalModel             : ['LinearTemporalModel', 'linear']
LightCurveTemplateTemporalModel : ['LightCurveTemplateTemporalModel', 'template']
ExpDecayTemporalModel           : ['ExpDecayTemporalModel', 'exp-decay']
GaussianTemporalModel           : ['GaussianTemporalModel', 'gauss']
GeneralizedGaussianTemporalModel: ['GeneralizedGaussianTemporalModel', 'gengauss']
PowerLawTemporalModel           : ['PowerLawTemporalModel', 'powerlaw']
SineTemporalModel               : ['SineTemporalModel', 'sinus']
TemplatePhaseCurveTemporalModel : ['TemplatePhaseCurveTemporalModel', 'template-phase']

Temporal models can be evaluated on astropy.time.Time objects. The returned quantity is a dimensionless number

from astropy.time import Time

time = Time("2021-01-29 00:00:00.000")
gauss_temp(time)
<Quantity 0.32465247>

As for other models, they can be plotted in a given time range

time = Time([59233.0, 59250], format="mjd")
gauss_temp.plot(time)
models
<Axes: xlabel='Time [iso]', ylabel='Norm / A.U.'>

SkyModel#

The SkyModel class combines a spectral, and optionally, a spatial model and a temporal. It can be created from existing spectral, spatial and temporal model components:

from gammapy.modeling.models import SkyModel

model = SkyModel(
    spectral_model=pwl,
    spatial_model=gauss,
    temporal_model=gauss_temp,
    name="my-source",
)
print(model)
SkyModel

  Name                      : my-source
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       : GaussianSpatialModel
  Temporal model type       : GaussianTemporalModel
  Parameters:
    index                         :      2.200   +/-    0.00
    amplitude                     :   2.70e-12   +/- 0.0e+00 1 / (cm2 s TeV)
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV
    lon_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    lat_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    sigma                         :      0.200   +/-    0.00 deg
    e                     (frozen):      0.000
    phi                   (frozen):      0.000       deg
    t_ref                         :  59240.000   +/-    0.00 d
    sigma                         :      2.000   +/-    0.00 d

It is good practice to specify a name for your sky model, so that you can access it later by name and have meaningful identifier you serialisation. If you don’t define a name, a unique random name is generated:

Ba6LV9Mn

The individual components of the source model can be accessed using .spectral_model, .spatial_model and .temporal_model:

PowerLawSpectralModel

  type      name     value         unit      ... max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --- ------ ------- ----
spectral     index 2.2000e+00                ... nan  False   False
spectral amplitude 2.7000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ... nan  False    True
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ... nan   True   False
GaussianSpatialModel

  type   name   value    unit   error      min        max    frozen is_norm link
------- ----- ---------- ---- --------- ---------- --------- ------ ------- ----
spatial lon_0 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00        nan       nan  False   False
spatial lat_0 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00 -9.000e+01 9.000e+01  False   False
spatial sigma 2.0000e-01  deg 0.000e+00  0.000e+00       nan  False   False
spatial     e 0.0000e+00      0.000e+00  0.000e+00 1.000e+00   True   False
spatial   phi 0.0000e+00  deg 0.000e+00        nan       nan   True   False
GaussianTemporalModel

  type    name   value    unit   error   min max frozen is_norm link
-------- ----- ---------- ---- --------- --- --- ------ ------- ----
temporal t_ref 5.9240e+04    d 0.000e+00 nan nan  False   False
temporal sigma 2.0000e+00    d 0.000e+00 nan nan  False   False

And can be used as you have seen already seen above:

plt.figure()
model.spectral_model.plot(energy_bounds=[1, 10] * u.TeV)
models
<Axes: xlabel='Energy [TeV]', ylabel='dnde [1 / (cm2 s TeV)]'>

Note that the gammapy fitting can interface only with a SkyModel and not its individual components. So, it is customary to work with SkyModel even if you are not doing a 3D fit. Since the amplitude parameter resides on the SpectralModel, specifying a spectral component is compulsory. The temporal and spatial components are optional. The temporal model needs to be specified only for timing analysis. In some cases (e.g. when doing a spectral analysis) there is no need for a spatial component either, and only a spectral model is associated with the source.

model_spectrum = SkyModel(spectral_model=pwl, name="source-spectrum")
print(model_spectrum)
SkyModel

  Name                      : source-spectrum
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       :
  Temporal model type       :
  Parameters:
    index                         :      2.200   +/-    0.00
    amplitude                     :   2.70e-12   +/- 0.0e+00 1 / (cm2 s TeV)
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV

Additionally the spatial model of SkyModel can be used to represent source models based on templates, where the spatial and energy axes are correlated. It can be created e.g. from an existing FITS file:

from gammapy.modeling.models import PowerLawNormSpectralModel, TemplateSpatialModel

diffuse_cube = TemplateSpatialModel.read(
    "$GAMMAPY_DATA/fermi-3fhl-gc/gll_iem_v06_gc.fits.gz", normalize=False
)
diffuse = SkyModel(PowerLawNormSpectralModel(), diffuse_cube)
print(diffuse)
SkyModel

  Name                      : Rvq4dF-H
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawNormSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       : TemplateSpatialModel
  Temporal model type       :
  Parameters:
    norm                          :      1.000   +/-    0.00
    tilt                  (frozen):      0.000
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV

Note that if the spatial model is not normalized over the sky it has to be combined with a normalized spectral model, for example PowerLawNormSpectralModel. This is the only case in gammapy.models.SkyModel where the unit is fully attached to the spatial model.

Modifying model parameters#

Model parameters can be modified (eg: frozen, values changed, etc at any point), eg:

# Freezing a parameter
model.spectral_model.index.frozen = True
# Making a parameter free
model.spectral_model.index.frozen = False

# Changing a value
model.spectral_model.index.value = 3

# Setting min and max ranges on parameters
model.spectral_model.index.min = 1.0
model.spectral_model.index.max = 5.0

# Visualise the model as a table
display(model.parameters.to_table())
  type      name     value         unit      ...    max    frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --------- ------ ------- ----
spectral     index 3.0000e+00                ... 5.000e+00  False   False
spectral amplitude 2.7000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ...       nan  False    True
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ...       nan   True   False
 spatial     lon_0 0.0000e+00            deg ...       nan  False   False
 spatial     lat_0 0.0000e+00            deg ... 9.000e+01  False   False
 spatial     sigma 2.0000e-01            deg ...       nan  False   False
 spatial         e 0.0000e+00                ... 1.000e+00   True   False
 spatial       phi 0.0000e+00            deg ...       nan   True   False
temporal     t_ref 5.9240e+04              d ...       nan  False   False
temporal     sigma 2.0000e+00              d ...       nan  False   False

You can use the interactive boxes to choose model parameters by name, type or other attrributes mentioned in the column names.

Model lists and serialisation#

In a typical analysis scenario a model consists of multiple model components, or a “catalog” or “source library”. To handle this list of multiple model components, Gammapy has a Models class:

from gammapy.modeling.models import Models

models = Models([model, diffuse])
print(models)
Models

Component 0: SkyModel

  Name                      : my-source
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       : GaussianSpatialModel
  Temporal model type       : GaussianTemporalModel
  Parameters:
    index                         :      3.000   +/-    0.00
    amplitude                     :   2.70e-12   +/- 0.0e+00 1 / (cm2 s TeV)
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV
    lon_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    lat_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    sigma                         :      0.200   +/-    0.00 deg
    e                     (frozen):      0.000
    phi                   (frozen):      0.000       deg
    t_ref                         :  59240.000   +/-    0.00 d
    sigma                         :      2.000   +/-    0.00 d

Component 1: SkyModel

  Name                      : Rvq4dF-H
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawNormSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       : TemplateSpatialModel
  Temporal model type       :
  Parameters:
    norm                          :      1.000   +/-    0.00
    tilt                  (frozen):      0.000
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV

Individual model components in the list can be accessed by their name:

print(models["my-source"])
SkyModel

  Name                      : my-source
  Datasets names            : None
  Spectral model type       : PowerLawSpectralModel
  Spatial  model type       : GaussianSpatialModel
  Temporal model type       : GaussianTemporalModel
  Parameters:
    index                         :      3.000   +/-    0.00
    amplitude                     :   2.70e-12   +/- 0.0e+00 1 / (cm2 s TeV)
    reference             (frozen):      1.000       TeV
    lon_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    lat_0                         :      0.000   +/-    0.00 deg
    sigma                         :      0.200   +/-    0.00 deg
    e                     (frozen):      0.000
    phi                   (frozen):      0.000       deg
    t_ref                         :  59240.000   +/-    0.00 d
    sigma                         :      2.000   +/-    0.00 d

Note: To make the access by name unambiguous, models are required to have a unique name, otherwise an error will be thrown.

To see which models are available you can use the .names attribute:

print(models.names)
['my-source', 'Rvq4dF-H']

Note that a SkyModel object can be evaluated for a given longitude, latitude, and energy, but the Models object cannot. This Models container object will be assigned to Dataset or Datasets together with the data to be fitted. Checkout e.g. the Modelling tutorial for details.

The Models class also has in place .append() and .extend() methods:

model_copy = model.copy(name="my-source-copy")
models.append(model_copy)

This list of models can be also serialised to a custom YAML based format:

components:
-   name: my-source
    type: SkyModel
    spectral:
        type: PowerLawSpectralModel
        parameters:
        -   name: index
            value: 3.0
            min: 1.0
            max: 5.0
        -   name: amplitude
            value: 2.7e-12
            unit: cm-2 s-1 TeV-1
        -   name: reference
            value: 1.0
            unit: TeV
    spatial:
        type: GaussianSpatialModel
        frame: galactic
        parameters:
        -   name: lon_0
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
        -   name: lat_0
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
        -   name: sigma
            value: 0.2
            unit: deg
        -   name: e
            value: 0.0
        -   name: phi
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
    temporal:
        type: GaussianTemporalModel
        parameters:
        -   name: t_ref
            value: 59240.0
            unit: d
        -   name: sigma
            value: 2.0
            unit: d
-   name: Rvq4dF-H
    type: SkyModel
    spectral:
        type: PowerLawNormSpectralModel
        parameters:
        -   name: norm
            value: 1.0
        -   name: tilt
            value: 0.0
        -   name: reference
            value: 1.0
            unit: TeV
    spatial:
        type: TemplateSpatialModel
        frame: galactic
        parameters: []
        filename: /home/runner/work/gammapy-docs/gammapy-docs/gammapy-datasets/1.0.1/fermi-3fhl-gc/gll_iem_v06_gc.fits.gz
        normalize: false
        unit: 1 / (cm2 MeV s sr)
-   name: my-source-copy
    type: SkyModel
    spectral:
        type: PowerLawSpectralModel
        parameters:
        -   name: index
            value: 3.0
            min: 1.0
            max: 5.0
        -   name: amplitude
            value: 2.7e-12
            unit: cm-2 s-1 TeV-1
        -   name: reference
            value: 1.0
            unit: TeV
    spatial:
        type: GaussianSpatialModel
        frame: galactic
        parameters:
        -   name: lon_0
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
        -   name: lat_0
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
        -   name: sigma
            value: 0.2
            unit: deg
        -   name: e
            value: 0.0
        -   name: phi
            value: 0.0
            unit: deg
    temporal:
        type: GaussianTemporalModel
        parameters:
        -   name: t_ref
            value: 59240.0
            unit: d
        -   name: sigma
            value: 2.0
            unit: d

The structure of the yaml files follows the structure of the python objects. The components listed correspond to the SkyModel and components of the Models. For each SkyModel we have information about its name, type (corresponding to the tag attribute) and sub-mobels (i.e spectral model and eventually spatial model). Then the spatial and spectral models are defined by their type and parameters. The parameters keys name/value/unit are mandatory, while the keys min/max/frozen are optionnals (so you can prepare shorter files).

If you want to write this list of models to disk and read it back later you can use:

models.write("models.yaml", overwrite=True)

models_read = Models.read("models.yaml")

Additionally the models can exported and imported togeter with the data using the Datasets.read() and Datasets.write() methods as shown in the Multi instrument joint 3D and 1D analysis notebook.

Models with shared parameter#

A model parameter can be shared with other models, for example we can define two power-law models with the same spectral index but different amplitudes:

pwl2 = PowerLawSpectralModel()
pwl2.index = pwl.index
pwl.index.value = (
    2.3  # also update pwl2 as the parameter object is now the same as shown below
)
print(pwl.index)
print(pwl2.index)
Parameter(name='index', value=2.3, factor=2.3, scale=1.0, unit=Unit(dimensionless), min=1.0, max=5.0, frozen=False, id=0x7f317034feb0)
Parameter(name='index', value=2.3, factor=2.3, scale=1.0, unit=Unit(dimensionless), min=1.0, max=5.0, frozen=False, id=0x7f317034feb0)

In the YAML files the shared parameter is flagged by the additional link entry that follows the convention parameter.name@unique_id:

models = Models([SkyModel(pwl, name="source1"), SkyModel(pwl2, name="source2")])
models_yaml = models.to_yaml()
print(models_yaml)
components:
-   name: source1
    type: SkyModel
    spectral:
        type: PowerLawSpectralModel
        parameters:
        -   name: index
            value: 2.3
            min: 1.0
            max: 5.0
            link: index@MrUjM62x
        -   name: amplitude
            value: 2.7e-12
            unit: cm-2 s-1 TeV-1
        -   name: reference
            value: 1.0
            unit: TeV
-   name: source2
    type: SkyModel
    spectral:
        type: PowerLawSpectralModel
        parameters:
        -   name: index
            value: 2.3
            min: 1.0
            max: 5.0
            link: index@MrUjM62x
        -   name: amplitude
            value: 1.0e-12
            unit: cm-2 s-1 TeV-1
        -   name: reference
            value: 1.0
            unit: TeV

Implementing a custom model#

In order to add a user defined spectral model you have to create a SpectralModel subclass. This new model class should include:

  • a tag used for serialization (it can be the same as the class name)

  • an instantiation of each Parameter with their unit, default values and frozen status

  • the evaluate function where the mathematical expression for the model is defined.

As an example we will use a PowerLawSpectralModel plus a Gaussian (with fixed width). First we define the new custom model class that we name MyCustomSpectralModel:

from gammapy.modeling import Parameter
from gammapy.modeling.models import SpectralModel


class MyCustomSpectralModel(SpectralModel):
    """My custom spectral model, parametrising a power law plus a Gaussian spectral line.

    Parameters
    ----------
    amplitude : `astropy.units.Quantity`
        Amplitude of the spectra model.
    index : `astropy.units.Quantity`
        Spectral index of the model.
    reference : `astropy.units.Quantity`
        Reference energy of the power law.
    mean : `astropy.units.Quantity`
        Mean value of the Gaussian.
    width : `astropy.units.Quantity`
        Sigma width of the Gaussian line.

    """

    tag = "MyCustomSpectralModel"
    amplitude = Parameter("amplitude", "1e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1", min=0, is_norm=True)
    index = Parameter("index", 2, min=0)
    reference = Parameter("reference", "1 TeV", frozen=True)
    mean = Parameter("mean", "1 TeV", min=0)
    width = Parameter("width", "0.1 TeV", min=0, frozen=True)

    @staticmethod
    def evaluate(energy, index, amplitude, reference, mean, width):
        pwl = PowerLawSpectralModel.evaluate(
            energy=energy,
            index=index,
            amplitude=amplitude,
            reference=reference,
        )
        gauss = amplitude * np.exp(-((energy - mean) ** 2) / (2 * width**2))
        return pwl + gauss

It is good practice to also implement a docstring for the model, defining the parameters and also definig a .tag, which specifies the name of the model for serialisation. Also note that gammapy assumes that all SpectralModel evaluate functions return a flux in unit of "cm-2 s-1 TeV-1" (or equivalent dimensions).

This model can now be used as any other spectral model in Gammapy:

my_custom_model = MyCustomSpectralModel(mean="3 TeV")
print(my_custom_model)

print(my_custom_model.integral(1 * u.TeV, 10 * u.TeV))

plt.figure()
my_custom_model.plot(energy_bounds=[1, 10] * u.TeV)
models
MyCustomSpectralModel

  type      name     value         unit      ... max frozen is_norm link
-------- --------- ---------- -------------- ... --- ------ ------- ----
spectral amplitude 1.0000e-12 cm-2 s-1 TeV-1 ... nan  False    True
spectral     index 2.0000e+00                ... nan  False   False
spectral reference 1.0000e+00            TeV ... nan   True   False
spectral      mean 3.0000e+00            TeV ... nan  False   False
spectral     width 1.0000e-01            TeV ... nan   True   False
1.1442739329466718e-12 1 / (cm2 s)

<Axes: xlabel='Energy [TeV]', ylabel='dnde [1 / (cm2 s TeV)]'>

As a next step we can also register the custom model in the SPECTRAL_MODELS registry, so that it becomes available for serilisation:

SPECTRAL_MODEL_REGISTRY.append(MyCustomSpectralModel)

model = SkyModel(spectral_model=my_custom_model, name="my-source")
models = Models([model])
models.write("my-custom-models.yaml", overwrite=True)

# !cat my-custom-models.yaml

Similarly you can also create custom spatial models and add them to the SPATIAL_MODELS registry. In that case gammapy assumes that the evaluate function return a normalized quantity in “sr-1” such as the model integral over the whole sky is one.

Models with energy dependent morphology#

A common science case in the study of extended sources is to probe for energy dependent morphology, eg: in Supernova Remnants or Pulsar Wind Nebulae. Traditionally, this has been done by splitting the data into energy bands and doing individual fits of the morphology in these energy bands.

SkyModel offers a natural framework to simultaneously model the energy and morphology, e.g. spatial extent described by a parametric model expression with energy dependent parameters.

The models shipped within gammapy use a “factorised” representation of the source model, where the spatial (\(l,b\)), energy (\(E\)) and time (\(t\)) dependence are independent model components and not correlated:

\[\begin{align}f(l, b, E, t) = F(l, b) \cdot G(E) \cdot H(t)\end{align}\]

To use full 3D models, ie \(f(l, b, E) = F(l, b, E) \cdot \ G(E)\), you have to implement your own custom SpatialModel. Note that it is still necessary to multiply by a SpectralModel, \(G(E)\) to be dimensionally consistent.

In this example, we create Gaussian Spatial Model with the extension varying with energy. For simplicity, we assume a linear dependency on energy and parameterize this by specifying the extension at 2 energies. You can add more complex dependencies, probably motivated by physical models.

from astropy.coordinates.angle_utilities import angular_separation
from gammapy.modeling.models import SpatialModel


class MyCustomGaussianModel(SpatialModel):
    """My custom Energy Dependent Gaussian model.

    Parameters
    ----------
    lon_0, lat_0 : `~astropy.coordinates.Angle`
        Center position
    sigma_1TeV : `~astropy.coordinates.Angle`
        Width of the Gaussian at 1 TeV
    sigma_10TeV : `~astropy.coordinates.Angle`
        Width of the Gaussian at 10 TeV

    """

    tag = "MyCustomGaussianModel"
    is_energy_dependent = True
    lon_0 = Parameter("lon_0", "0 deg")
    lat_0 = Parameter("lat_0", "0 deg", min=-90, max=90)

    sigma_1TeV = Parameter("sigma_1TeV", "2.0 deg", min=0)
    sigma_10TeV = Parameter("sigma_10TeV", "0.2 deg", min=0)

    @staticmethod
    def evaluate(lon, lat, energy, lon_0, lat_0, sigma_1TeV, sigma_10TeV):

        sep = angular_separation(lon, lat, lon_0, lat_0)

        # Compute sigma for the given energy using linear interpolation in log energy
        sigma_nodes = u.Quantity([sigma_1TeV, sigma_10TeV])
        energy_nodes = [1, 10] * u.TeV
        log_s = np.log(sigma_nodes.to("deg").value)
        log_en = np.log(energy_nodes.to("TeV").value)
        log_e = np.log(energy.to("TeV").value)
        sigma = np.exp(np.interp(log_e, log_en, log_s)) * u.deg

        exponent = -0.5 * (sep / sigma) ** 2
        norm = 1 / (2 * np.pi * sigma**2)
        return norm * np.exp(exponent)

Serialisation of this model can be achieved as explained in the previous section. You can now use it as standard SpatialModel in your analysis. Note that this is still a SpatialModel and not a SkyModel, so it needs to be multiplied by a SpectralModel as before.

None

To visualise it, we evaluate it on a 3D geom.

energy_axis = MapAxis.from_energy_bounds(
    energy_min=0.1 * u.TeV, energy_max=10.0 * u.TeV, nbin=3, name="energy_true"
)
geom = WcsGeom.create(skydir=(0, 0), width=5.0 * u.deg, binsz=0.1, axes=[energy_axis])

spatial_model.plot_grid(geom=geom, add_cbar=True, figsize=(14, 3))

plt.show()
Energy_true 100 GeV - 464 GeV, Energy_true 464 GeV - 2.15 TeV, Energy_true 2.15 TeV - 10.00 TeV

For computational purposes, it is useful to specify a evaluation_radius for SpatialModels - this gives a size on which to compute the model. Though optional, it is highly recommended for Custom Spatial Models. This can be done, for ex, by defining the following function inside the above class:

@property
def evaluation_radius(self):
    """Evaluation radius (`~astropy.coordinates.Angle`)."""
    return 5 * np.max([self.sigma_1TeV.value, self.sigma_10TeV.value]) * u.deg

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